| Author: | Lukenge, Kamya Richard |
| Title: | Toward attaining socially inclusive mobility : assessing the role of informal public transportation in developing cities |
| Advisors: | Siu, Kin Wai Michael (SD) Liu, Sylvia (SD) |
| Degree: | Ph.D. |
| Year: | 2026 |
| Department: | School of Design |
| Pages: | xx, 246 pages : color illustrations |
| Language: | English |
| Abstract: | This study is premised on the argument that informal transportation systems embody unique social and economic conditions that define mobility in some cities. With millions worldwide suffering from Transport Related Social Exclusion (TRSE) due to socio-economic challenges like poverty and inadequate public transport alternatives, many low-income people, particularly in developing cities, often rely on the informal transport sector as their lifeline. For that reason, this doctoral thesis explores the "social dimension" of mobility informalities in Kampala, a Sub-Saharan African (SSA) city. It examines how informal transport affects access to socio-economic opportunities, such as jobs, education, leisure, and health services. It explores socioeconomic, corporeal, and cultural geographies and identifies existing design-related Socially Inclusive Sustainable Informal Mobility (SISIM) practices. The key question of this research is: What is the relationship between the informal transport system and achieving socially inclusive mobility in developing cities? The objectives are to examine the informal transportation system of the study area, investigate its role in achieving socially inclusive mobility, and identify existing SISIM practices. From both theoretical and practical perspectives, the study reviewed literature on the interoperability between informal transportation systems and achieving Socially Inclusive Sustainable Mobility (SISM), and Transport-Related Social Exclusion (TRSE). Based on these concepts, the hypothesis tested in this research states that there is no significant relationship between the urban informal transport system and achieving socially inclusive mobility in developing cities. This study employed a mixed-method approach, specifically the "Exploratory Sequential mixed method." Data were analysed using Stata, version 19.5, with a combination of descriptive and inferential statistical methods to achieve the research goals and test the hypotheses. Descriptive statistics—including frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations—were used to summarise respondent demographics and overall perceptions regarding background characteristics and informal transport. A Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) method was employed to analyse the relationship between informal transport and social influence: I.e., two distinct single measurement models, with one assessing the informal transportation latent variable and the other evaluating the social exclusion latent variable. Kampala city served as the sample frame. To achieve 95% accuracy with a significance level of 0.05, the sample frame encompassed 25% of the city (the research area). For the interviews, 650 semi-structured interviews were conducted with three member-category groups from five city divisions: the informal motorcycle taxi operators, known as "boda-boda" drivers, the 14-seater mini-bus taxi drivers, and the general public (commuters). The findings reveal that public transport users associate transport informality not only with mobility but also with deeper structural exclusion. The most critical finding is a positive and statistically significant correlation (coefficient = 1.035; p = 0.003) between informal transport usage and social exclusion. This suggests that greater reliance on informal transport correlates with higher levels of social exclusion. In practice, this could mean that those depending on informal modes—perhaps due to a lack of alternatives—face barriers to opportunities and services like employment, education, healthcare, and civic life. Thus, the result highlights the double-edged nature of informal transport: it offers mobility but may indicate marginalization when formal options are limited or inaccessible. Furthermore, the findings highlight the socio-economic importance of motorcycle taxis (boda-boda), especially in supporting livelihoods, mobility, and access to services. However, negative associations with transport informality and lack of regulation suggest that many riders are aware of their vulnerability, whether from unsafe working conditions, fluctuating income, or lack of legal protection. The study concludes that perceptions of informality in Kampala-Uganda's transport sector are shaped more by structural and operational factors than by demographic differences like age or income. This is because the interpretation of transport informality remained consistent across various age groups and income levels. All stakeholders, including boda-boda riders, mini-van drivers, and users, recognize the role of informal transportation and agree that Kampala's public transport sector is largely informal. They believe the sector is youth-dominated, with flexible fares, and is unregulated, unsafe, chaotic, perilous, localized, and variable. Thus, to policymakers, the findings justify calls for more socially inclusive and sustainable transport reforms to address the challenges of current transport informality systems in developing cities. Transport policy must prioritize formalization strategies that focus on affordability, accessibility, and integration into the broader transport network. This includes better route regulation, improved safety, and service quality standards for informal operators. Additionally, through Socially Inclusive Sustainable Informal Mobility (SISIM), the study identifies three design-based local practices: the "Gogo Boda", "Kyaninga Mobility, and "Boogaali" projects. The Gogo project employs a circular economy approach by converting existing internal combustion engine (ICE) motorcycles into electric two-wheelers powered by smart lithium-ion batteries made from recycled laptop and appliance cells. The Boogaali project involves crafting bamboo bike frames using bamboo and a local natural fibre called bark cloth, combined with other composite materials like resin. Kyaninga Mobility (KM), produces assistive devices for children with disabilities using locally sourced materials and innovative, appropriate technology. If well considered by policymakers, these locally social inclusive design solutions can significantly reduce CO₂ output, thus achieving Sustainable cities. To academia, the study theoretically contributes to the interdisciplinary and cross-cultural knowledge on urban public transportation and TRSE, focusing on informal transport systems and social inclusion/exclusion. It enriches theory with insights from under-researched locations like Sub-Saharan African developing cities. Most importantly, the study introduces the term SISIM for Socially Inclusive Sustainable Informal Mobility. SISIM involves community-driven transport initiatives, where local residents mobilize resources and collaborate to establish informal transit solutions tailored to their needs. Considering the socio-economic and environmental implications of SISIM findings, these grassroots practices can serve as a foundation for broader theoretical discourse around SISIM as part of the wider socially inclusive sustainable mobility (SISM). Thus, the study, in both theory and practice, can guide scholars, city planners, designers, policymakers, and other stakeholders toward achieving socially inclusive, sustainable developing cities. |
| Rights: | All rights reserved |
| Access: | open access |
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